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Home > Professional Reference > Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia

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Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia

This PatientPlus article is written for healthcare professionals so the language may be more technical than the condition leaflets. You may find the abbreviations list helpful.

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disorder of pluripotent haemopoietic stem cells, affecting one or all cell lines (erythroid, platelet and myeloid). Over time, the leukaemic cells proliferate due to stepped-up production and failed apoptosis.

CML has become a model for cancer research since it was the first malignancy to have a specific chromosomal abnormality - the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome, uniquely linked to it almost 50 years ago.1 Since then, advances in understanding of CML's molecular biology have begun to translate into targeted therapies such as imatinib mesylate.

Epidemiology

  • Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is a rare disease with a fairly uniform incidence globally, affecting about 0.6-2 per 100,000 people per year.2 This translates to about 700 new cases per year in the UK. 3
  • It represents about 14% of all leukaemias and is less common than acute myeloid leukaemia and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.
  • Presentation can occur at any age; however, it is rare in children (CML represents only 5% of childhood leukaemia). Peak incidence occurs between ages 40-60 years.3

Aetiology

The initiating event or events are unknown: there are no known hereditary, familial, geographic, ethnic or economic associations. There may be an increased risk after exposure to the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki but not with lower levels of radiation.4

Cytogenetics

  • Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is characterised by a consistent cytogenetic abnormality - a reciprocal translocation between the long arms of chromosomes 22 and 9, t(9;22). The result is a shortened chromosome 22, known as the Ph chromosome.
  • The translocation is significant because it places an oncogene (abl) from the long arm of chromosome 9 to the long arm of chromosome 22 in the BCR region. The BCR/ABL fusion gene encodes a chimeric protein with strong tyrosine kinase activity. This constitutively active BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase causes CML but how the presence of this oncoprotein leads to the CML phenotype is not fully understood.
  • CML's hallmark is the presence of BCR/ABL rearrangement and is considered diagnostic when present in a patient with clinical manifestations of CML.

Presentation

85 to 90% of patients are diagnosed in the chronic phase and in recent years about half have been diagnosed before any symptoms developed, with incidental abnormalities spotted on a blood test.

Symptoms

Symptoms can be insidious in onset and include:

  • Fatigue
  • Night sweats
  • Weight loss
  • Abdominal fullness or abdominal distension
  • Left upper quadrant pain due to splenic infarction

Signs

Investigations

At presentation:

  • Full blood count:
    • Leukocytosis is common.
    • Differential shows granulocytes at all stages of development and increased numbers of eosinophils and basophils.
    • Platelets may be elevated, decreased or normal levels.
    • A mild-to-moderate, usually normochromic and normocytic, anaemia is common.
  • Peripheral blood smear - all stages of maturation seen; often resembles a bone marrow aspiration.
  • Biochemistry - U&Es are usually normal at presentation, lactate dehydrogenase is usually raised, serum urate may be raised.
  • Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are essential to quantify the percentage of blasts and basophils, to assess the degree of fibrosis and to obtain material for cytogenetic-molecular analyses.
  • The leucocyte alkaline phosphatase test is largely of historical interest as it has been superseded by cytogenetic tests but was used previously to differentiate chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) from other myeloproliferative disorders.
  • Cytogenetics - the characteristic feature in CML is the Ph chromosome and is found in about 90% cases. Of those with a negative Ph chromosome, a third to one half test positive for the abnormal gene, or the abnormal protein associated with the chromosome, when more sensitive studies, such as dual fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) or polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are used. They have a similar prognosis and response to treatment as patients with classical Ph CML.
  • HLA typing for patients and family members if stem cell transplantation (SCT) contemplated.

During treatment:

  • Cytogenetic response is monitored by regular karyotyping or FISH studies looking at the percentage of bone marrow cells with Ph+ cells.
  • Molecular response is monitored by looking at PCR studies demonstrating BCR/ABL transcript levels. Rising levels can indicate loss of response to treatment.5
  • BCR/ABL mutation analysis to determine likely susceptibility to treatment.

Frequency of monitoring will depend upon local protocols.

Differential diagnosis

The Ph chromosome is diagnostic but, where it is negative, consider:

Natural history

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) typically progresses through three stages. The duration of these phases has been altered by conventional chemotherapy, but not the clinical course.

Chronic phase

The immune system is competent and patients are asymptomatic for prolonged periods - typically, about 4-5 years.

Accelerated phase

In about 2/3 patients, the chronic phase transforms into an accelerated phase characterised by a moderate increase in blast cells, increasing anaemia or thrombocytopenia. After a variable amount of time (usually months) the accelerated phase progresses to acute blastic transformation. Features of accelerated phase include:

  • Progressive maturation arrest
  • Increased bone marrow or peripheral blasts (15-30%)
  • Increased bone marrow or peripheral basophils and eosinophils (≥20%)
  • Resistance to therapy
  • Increased constitutional symptoms
  • Progressive splenomegaly
  • Cytogenetic clonal evolution
  • Leukocytosis
  • Thrombocytosis or thrombocytopenia

The accelerated phase is not clearly defined - different classifications use slightly different cut-offs for haematological values but use of different criteria can lead to difficulty comparing trial results.

Blast crisis or blastic phase

About a third of patients will move directly from the chronic phase of CML to blastic crisis. This is an aggressive acute leukaemia with marrow exhaustion, highly refractory to chemotherapy and usually rapidly fatal. Features of blastic phase include:

  • Bone marrow or peripheral blasts ≥30%
  • Severe constitutional symptoms due to tumour burden (weight loss, fever, night sweats, bone pain)
  • Infection and bleeding
  • Extramedullary blastic foci

Management

Goals of treatment are:

  1. Haematologic remission (normal FBC count, physical examination ie no organomegaly)
  2. Cytogenetic remission (normal chromosome returns with 0% Ph-positive cells)
  3. Molecular remission (negative PCR result for the mutational BCR/ABL m-RNA)

Drug therapies

In recent years, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have come to dominate the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML). In the past, myelosuppressive drug treatment has included:

  • Busulfan - an oral drug in use since the 1950s and the first agent to provide effective haematological control in CML patients. It tends to be reserved now for palliative treatment, due to severe side-effects (severe prolonged myelosuppression in 10% of patients, idiosyncratic pulmonary reactions, marrow or endocardial fibrosis), failure to produce complete remission and worse outcome after allogenic SCT.
  • Hydroxyurea - this is less toxic than busulfan, provides good debulking and allows for rapid control of the blood count in 50-80% patients. However, it does not alter the natural history of CML and should not be considered definitive treatment. It does not seem to have an adverse effect on bone marrow transplants. Its main toxic affects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and mucosal or skin ulceration.
  • Interferon alfa - this provides better results than traditional chemotherapy, with complete cytogenetic remission (CCGR) achieved in about 25%, associated with improved survival (78% alive at 10 years). Sustained disappearance of all Ph cells (complete molecular remission) is achieved in 5-10% and follow-up suggests these patients remain well at 10 years and probably are cured. Side-effects of interferon alfa occur in 90%, require dose reduction in 50% and cessation of treatment in 20%. They include fever, anorexia, postnasal drip, fatigue, depression, weight loss and peripheral neuropathy.

Current European guidance suggests:6

  • Initial treatment of CML with imatinib 400 mg daily.
  • This should be continued indefinitely in optimal responders. Current evidence suggests a risk of rapid relapse, even after long periods with undetectable BCR-ABL, with discontinuation.
  • Suboptimal responders may continue on imatinib, at the same or higher dose, or may be eligible for trial-based treatment with second-generation TKIs.
  • Where there is imatinib failure, second-generation TKIs are recommended, followed by allogeneic haematopoietic SCT only in instances of failure and, sometimes, suboptimal response, depending on transplantation risk.

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Imatinib:

  • Imatinib was one of the first drugs designed on an understanding of a disease's molecular biology. It is a selective inhibitor of the tyrosine kinase encoded by BCR-ABL fusion gene; it inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in cells positive for BCR/ABL and Ph+ leukaemic clones.
  • Rates of CCGR among patients receiving imatinib were 69% by 12 months and 87% by 60 months. These patients had a significantly lower risk of disease progression. Only 7% of patients progressed to accelerated-phase CML or blast crisis over 5 years and the estimated overall survival of patients who received imatinib as initial therapy was 89% at the same time period.7
  • It has very quickly become standard therapy for CML because of its remarkable efficacy and mild side-effect profile.8
  • National Institute for Clinical Excellence recommendations9 in 2003 for its use:
    • Consider as first-line treatment in an adult diagnosed with Ph CML in the chronic phase.
    • Consider as an option for an adult who is diagnosed in the accelerated or blast crisis phase.
    • Consider imatinib an option for an adult who has progressed to the accelerated or blast crisis phase but has not previously had the drug.
    • Where a person has been taking imatinib for CML in the chronic phase, but disease still progresses, continue only as part of a research study.

Second- and third-generation TKIs:

  • Imatinib seems particularly effective in chronic phase CML. In more advanced disease, patients are less likely to be sensitive and often display a short-lived response to the drug. Failure of imatinib therapy associated with progression in the accelerated or blastic phase carries a particularly poor prognosis.10
  • Primary and secondary drug resistance at all stages of the disease has been observed. The underlying mechanisms of drug resistance are beginning to be understood and second-generation drugs such as nilotinib (a more potent BCR-ABL inhibitor) and dasatinib (a dual ABL/SRC inhibitor) have been developed.11,12 Trials have shown that these drugs are effective in patients previously exposed to imatinib.13
  • Third-generation TKIs are being developed to target further mutations associated with drug resistance and combination therapy may be a strategy to pre-empt resistance.14

Transplant therapies15

CML has been the most common indication for a bone marrow transplant but the place of SCTs in the treatment of CML post-imatinib is debated. It remains an important option particularly for younger individuals with HLA-identical siblings with the hope of cure. Risks of SCT include:

  • Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
  • Veno-occlusive disease
  • Life-threatening infections
  • Risk of secondary malignancies
  • Poorer overall quality of life

Allogenic SCT should ideally be undertaken in the chronic phase of CML when it is associated with 3 to 5-year survival rates of 40-80% and 10-year survival rates of 30-60%. The optimal time of transplantation is controversial but thought to be up to 24 months following diagnosis. Transplantation-related mortality ranges from 5-50% depending on factors including the patient's age, donor origin (related vs unrelated), degree of HLA matching, host cytomegalovirus status, use of conditioning regimens and institutional expertise.

Only about a third to a half of all patients may have a suitable HLA-matched sibling. Options for these individuals include the use of matched unrelated donors (MUDs) or autologous SCT. The use of stringent molecular typing in finding MUDs decreases the risk of GVHD but reduces availability.

In autologous SCT, cells from the patient's own bone marrow are withdrawn before destroying the bone marrow with chemotherapy or radiation. The transplant cells are then infused and repopulate the bone marrow. There is a risk that the transplanted stem cells may still contain the Ph chromosome. A recent meta-analysis suggested that it conferred no survival benefit and should be avoided as initial treatment for CML.16 It may still have a role in instances such as drug-resistant CML.

Prognosis

Prognosis for long-term survival with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) has improved over the years:

  • The median survival rates with hydroxyurea therapy was 4-5 years. With interferon therapy used alone or in combination with cytarabine (Ara-C), these numbers are almost doubled.
  • The introduction of imatinib is hoped further to improve the prognoses of CML patients:
    • There is a higher rate of major cytogenetic remission (MCR) rate achieved with imatinib compared with interferon (85% versus 7-37%)17 and the hope is that this will translate into survival benefit - as it does with interferon.
    • Estimates, based on this premise, suggest an absolute increment in the 10-year survival rate of about a third.18
    • Observational studies are still in progress so evidence for long-term (10 years and beyond) survival benefit of this new drug is not available yet.
    • Follow-up at 5 years suggests an enduring response to imatinib in a high proportion of patients and an overall 5-year survival rate of 89%.7

Document references

  1. Nowell PC, Hungerford DA. A minute chromosome in human chronic granulocytic leukemia. Science 1960;132:1497-1497
  2. Rohrbacher M, Hasford J; Epidemiology of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML). Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 2009 Sep;22(3):295-302. [abstract]
  3. Goldman J; ABC of clinical haematology. Chronic myeloid leukaemia. BMJ. 1997 Mar 1;314(7081):657-60.
  4. Advisory Group on Ionising Radiation (AGIR), Health Protection Agency; Access to reports
  5. Jabbour E, Cortes JE, Kantarjian HM; Molecular monitoring in chronic myeloid leukemia: response to tyrosine kinase Cancer. 2008 May 15;112(10):2112-8. [abstract]
  6. Baccarani M, Cortes J, Pane F, et al; Chronic Myeloid Leukemia: An Update of Concepts and Management Recommendations of J Clin Oncol. 2009 Nov 2. [abstract]
  7. Druker BJ, Guilhot F, O'Brien SG, et al; Five-year follow-up of patients receiving imatinib for chronic myeloid leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2006 Dec 7;355(23):2408-17. [abstract]
  8. Baccarani M, Saglio G, Goldman J, et al; Evolving concepts in the management of chronic myeloid leukemia. Recommendations from an expert panel on behalf of the European Leukemianet.; Blood. 2006 May 18;. [abstract]
  9. Leukaemia (chronic myeloid) - imatinib. NICE Technology appraisal (October 2003)
  10. Kantarjian H, O'Brien S, Talpaz M, et al; Outcome of patients with Philadelphia chromosome-positive chronic myelogenous leukemia post-imatinib mesylate failure. Cancer. 2007 Apr 15;109(8):1556-60. [abstract]
  11. Kantarjian HM, Talpaz M, Giles F, et al; New insights into the pathophysiology of chronic myeloid leukemia and imatinib resistance. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Dec 19;145(12):913-23. [abstract]
  12. Quintas-Cardama A, Cortes JE; Chronic myeloid leukemia: diagnosis and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc. 2006 Jul;81(7):973-88. [abstract]
  13. Ramirez P, DiPersio JF; Therapy options in imatinib failures. Oncologist. 2008 Apr;13(4):424-34. [abstract]
  14. O'Hare T, Eide CA, Deininger MW; New Bcr-Abl inhibitors in chronic myeloid leukemia: keeping resistance in check. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2008 Jun;17(6):865-78. [abstract]
  15. Garcia-Manero G, Faderl S, O'Brien S, et al; Chronic myelogenous leukemia: a review and update of therapeutic strategies. Cancer. 2003 Aug 1;98(3):437-57.
  16. No authors listed; Autologous stem cell transplantation in chronic myeloid leukaemia: a meta-analysis of six randomized trials. Cancer Treat Rev. 2007 Feb;33(1):39-47. Epub 2006 Dec 11. [abstract]
  17. O'Brien SG, Guilhot F, Larson RA, et al; Imatinib compared with interferon and low-dose cytarabine for newly diagnosed chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2003 Mar 13;348(11):994-1004. [abstract]
  18. Hasford J, Pfirrmann M, Hochhaus A; How long will chronic myeloid leukemia patients treated with imatinib mesylate live? Leukemia. 2005 Apr;19(4):497-9.

Internet and further reading

The clinicians responsible for the production of this document are:
Original Author: Dr Chloe Borton
Last Checked: 22 Feb 2010		Current Version: Dr Chloe Borton
Document ID: 1958  Version: 23		Peer Reviewer: Dr John Cox
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